A Column of Fire

The 16th and 17th centuries were a period of significant cultural, intellectual, and religious change in Europe. The emergence of Protestantism, sparked by Martin Luther's 95 Theses in 1517, led to a schism within the Christian Church. In England, Henry VIII's desire for a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, which the Catholic Church denied, prompted the establishment of the Church of England in 1534. This move severed ties with the Pope and aligned England with Protestant principles, though the church retained some Catholic traditions. The religious pendulum swung during the reign of Mary I, Henry VIII’s daughter with Catherine, as she sought to restore Catholicism. This period, sometimes known as the Marian Persecutions, was marked by the persecution of English Protestants. However, Elizabeth I's ascent to the throne in 1558 signaled a return to Protestantism. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559 attempted to strike a delicate balance, allowing for moderate Protestantism while retaining some Catholic elements. However, this compromise failed to satisfy either side and led to continued tensions and outbreaks of violence. The Spanish Armada's attempted invasion in 1588, fueled by religious zeal, aimed to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I and restore Catholicism to England. The defeat of the Armada bolstered Protestant England's confidence and solidified its maritime supremacy.

Meanwhile, the tensions between Catholicism and Protestantism in France culminated in the French Wars of Religion from 1562 to 1598. The conflict primarily pitted Catholics against Huguenots, the French Calvinist Protestants. The war also had political undercurrents, with the Catholic Guise family and the Protestant Bourbon family vying for control. One of the most violent events during this time was the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in 1572, in which thousands of Huguenots were killed in Paris. Henry IV, who was born Protestant but converted to Catholicism, issued The Edict of Nantes in 1598. This edict granted religious tolerance to Protestants, and while it did promote religious freedom, it was also a pragmatic move to create political stability in an unstable country.

The political and religious conflict in Scotland is best exemplified through Mary, Queen of Scots. In the early 16th century, Scotland was predominantly Catholic, but as Protestantism spread across Europe, the Reformation's ideas also began to take root in Scotland. Mary Stuart ascended to the Scottish throne in her infancy after the death of her father, James V. During the Rough Wooing, or the Eight Years' War, England attacked Scotland in an attempt to break the Scottish-French alliance and to marry Mary to the English heir, Edward. This ultimately did not happen; she was married to the French dauphin, Francis II. However, Francis's early death resulted in Mary's return to Scotland in 1561. Her return coincided with the growing influence of Protestantism in Scotland. The country became divided between Catholic supporters (who were often loyal to the queen) and Protestant reformers (who were inspired by figures like John Knox). The tensions escalated as Mary faced opposition from Protestant nobles who sought to limit her authority. Ultimately, she was forced to abdicate in favor of her son, James VI, in 1567. The Union of the Crowns in 1603 resulted in James VI of Scotland ascending to the English throne as James I. Like Elizabeth, he was a Protestant, but he was not as tolerant as she was toward the Catholics. After the failed Gunpowder Plot by Catholic dissidents in 1605, he applied further pressure to the Catholics.