The Open Society and Its Enemies

Democracy is a system of government within the framework of the ideology of liberalism. In a democracy, citizens are able to choose their leaders through a system of voting, and their rights are protected by the means of laws and institutions. Democracy is universalist, humanist, and egalitarian. Popper views democracy as the optimal form of government because the checks and balances of a democratic system are designed to prevent a poor leader from causing too much damage. The author also considers democracy necessary for his ideal open society.

Egalitarianism is the doctrine that holds equality of all citizens before the law as the highest value. Popper uses the related term “equalitarianism.” Contemporary democratic societies seek this ideal by pursuing equal access to political decisions, through democratic institutions such as voting, and social equality through the equal treatment of all, among others.

Eugenics refers to the breeding of humans to amplify their desirable traits. This term has a strong negative connotation because of its historic applications, the worst of which was its usage in Nazi Germany. Popper asserts that Plato advocated for eugenic breeding to ensure that Athenians are as close to the ideal Form as possible. He also highlights the eugenic aspects of fascism (Nazism), such as the emphasis on blood (in the context of race) as the driving force in history.

Fascism is an ideology that became prominent in the 20th-century interwar period. Its focal point is a strong state (nation), as was the case with Italy, or race (racialism), as was the case with the National Socialist (Nazi) counterpart, Germany. Its form of government is authoritarian (or totalitarian, as Popper describes it). Popper locates the source of fascism in Hegel’s philosophy—specifically, its historicism, its emphasis on the strong state at the expense of the individual, and its focus on nationalism.

Hegelianism is the philosophical heritage of Hegel espoused by other philosophers influenced by him. This heritage includes Hegel’s central ideas, such as his dialectic triad, philosophy of identity, and historicism. Popper argues that Hegelianism lies at the root of 20th-century totalitarian movements.

In social sciences, historicism is the practice of using history to explain and predict future events. The term was initially introduced by the German philosopher Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel. Popper defines it as “the claim that the realm of social sciences coincides with that of historical or evolutionary method, and especially with historical prophecy” (316). Taken to an extreme, historicism interprets history as destiny. Popper is critical of historicism because he believes that it absolves people of responsibility for their own actions as they are swept away by grand historic events.

Imperialism is the practice of powerful, wealthy countries taking advantage of poorer, less powerful countries through economic, political, or cultural means. Imperialism is often associated with European colonialism from the so-called age of discovery. Popper focuses on imperialism in two key places in his book: the imperial pursuits of the Athenian democracy, especially during the Peloponnesian War, and as part of Marx’s critique of capitalism and its imperialist expression in the colonies.

Marxism is the body of work written by Karl Marx focused on social, political, and economic relations within the framework of dialectic materialism. The central aspect of Marxist historicism is class struggle, which is believed to ultimately lead to the disappearance of the state and the emergence of a classless society. Marxism is linked to socialism in its moderate form and communism in its radical form.

“Open society” is a term initially introduced by the French philosopher Henri Bergson (1859–1941) in the interwar period of the 20th century. The term refers to a society that subscribes to the ideology of liberalism, including the concepts of individualism, humanitarianism, universalism, and democracy. An open society is Popper’s ideal because it is perceived to empower individuals with agency, freedom of thought, and personal responsibility.

Platonism is the philosophical system designed by the Athenian philosopher Plato. Key aspects of Platonism include the Theory of Forms and Ideas and Plato’s utopian political program, in which a philosopher-king leads a powerful state with a rigid class system. Popper dissects Plato’s substantial influence on the history of Western thought as it pertains to its totalitarian tendencies.

Socialism is a system of government in which key industries are under state control and that offers many types of social welfare—from state-funded healthcare to guaranteed employment. Twentieth-century socialism is linked with Marxism as its ideological source. In his work, Marx predicted his ideal classless, stateless society as socialist, which differs from real historic examples. Popper points out this difference between the theory and practice of Marxism and explains it through historicism.

The Theory of Forms and Ideas served as a starting point of stability for Plato. Plato suggested that every object in physical reality as well as concepts, such as the state, have an ideal ethereal counterpart in the abstract space. The more closely the object matches its Form, the more perfect it is, and vice versa. Plato argued that things in physical reality decay, as time goes on, which means that the Golden Age was in the distant past. Popper criticizes Plato’s theory for its historicism and its opposition to the Athenian democracy, among others.